Annotation guidelines
shared task on automatic identification of verbal MWEs - edition 1.1 (2018)

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Light verb constructions (LVC)

Light verb constructions (LVC) constitute a universal category. We retain the following key characteristics:

1. They are formed by a verb v and a (single or compound) noun n, which either directly depends on v (and possibly contains a case marker or a postposition), or is introduced by a preposition.
   In case of Hindi, the noun can be replaced by an adjective which is morphologically identical to an eventive noun. If you annotate Hindi, everywhere is this page when the noun is referred to, you should read the noun or the adjective.
   • вземам решение to make a decision
     държа под контрол to keep under control
   • zum Einsatz kommen to the use come to be called into action
     eine Rede halten a speech hold to give a speech
   • παίρνω μία απόφαση make a decision
     δίνω στα νεύρα give to the nerves
     δίνω τη χαριστική βολή
   • to give a lecture → verb + direct-object noun
     to come into bloom → verb + prepositional-object noun
     to make a high five → verb + compound noun
   • hacer una promesa make a promise to make a promise
     poner en peligro put in danger endanger, jeopardise→ verb + prepositional-object noun
     tener dolor de cabeza have pain of head to have a headache → verb + compound noun
   • lan egin work do to work, aurrera egin front-to do to go ahead
   • faire une présentation make a presentation → verb + direct-object noun
     procéder à une analyse proceed to an analysis to make an analysis → verb + prepositional-object noun
     faire un faux pas make a faux-pas → verb + compound noun
   • stupiti na snagu step into force come into force
     držati predavanje to hold a speech to give a speech
   • chiamare in causa to_call in cause to single out
     fare una passeggiata to_make a walk to have a walk
   • odnieść sukces carry-away success to be successful
     mieć wyrzuty sumienia to have reproaches of conscience to blame oneself
     wykonać rzut karny to perform a penalty kick
   • fazer um aborto to make an abortion → verb + direct-object noun
     estar com fome be with hunger to be hungry → verb + prepositional-object noun
     fazer uma mesa redonda make a table round to have a round table (discussion) → verb + compound noun
   • a duce dorul to carry yearning.the to miss somebody
     a da divorț to give divorce to divorce
     a da în clocot to give in boil to come to the boil
     a da în fiert to give in boil to come to the boil
   • biti v dvomih to be in doubts → verb + prepositional-object noun, to doubt
     imeti predavanje to give a lecture → verb + direct-object noun
2. The (single or compound) noun n is predicative and refers to an event (e.g. decision, visit) or a state (e.g. fear, courage). Predicative nouns are nouns that have semantic arguments, that is, they express predicates whose meaning is only fully specified by their semantic arguments:
   • вземам решение to make a decision → noun refers to an act or event
     давам съгласие to give permission → noun refers to an act or event
     имам притеснения to have concerns → noun refers to a feeling or state
     имам готовност to be ready → noun refers to a feeling or state
   • eine Entscheidung treffen to make a decision → noun refers to an event
     Angst habento have fear→ noun refers to a state
   • παίρνω μία απόφαση, κάνω βόλτα → noun refers to an event
     έχω αγωνία, κάνω κουράγιο → noun refers to a state
   • to make a decision → noun refers to an event, there are 2 arguments: a decider and a choice
     to pay a visit → noun refers to an event, there are 2 arguments: a visitor and a visited place/person
     to have fear→ noun refers to a state, there are 2 arguments: somebody who is afraid and something frightening
     to have courage → noun refers to a state, there is 1 argument: the courageous person
   • dar un consejo give an advise to give advice→ noun refers to an event, there are 3 arguments: an adviser, and advised person, and a theme
     tener valor to have courage→ noun refers to a state, there is 1 argument: the courageous person
   • negar egin cry do to cry → noun refers to an act or event
     lo egin sleep do to sleep → noun refers to a state
   • donner un conseil give advice→ noun refers to an event, there are 3 arguments: an adviser, and advised person, and a theme
     avoir du courage to have courage→ noun refers to a state, there is 1 argument: the courageous person
   • donijeti odluku to bring a decision to make a decision → noun refers to an event
     imati osjećajto have feeling→ noun refers to a state
   • fare una domanda → noun refers to an event
     avere paura, avere coraggio → noun refers to a state
   • prowadzić rozmowy to lead conversations to lead negotiations→ the noun refers to an event
     mieć rację to have rightto be right→ the noun refers to a state
   • fazer uma prece to make a prayer → noun refers to an event, there are 2 arguments: the prayer and the thing she/he prays for
     ter sintomas to have symptoms → noun refers to a state, there are two arguments: the person having symptoms and the disease causing these symptoms
   • a lua o decizie to make a decision, a face o vizită to pay a visit→ noun refers to an event
     a avea curaj → noun refers to a state
   • biti v dvomih to be in doubts to have doubts → noun refers to a state
     imeti predavanje to give a lecture → noun refers to an event
3. We retain two sub-categories of verbs, which define two sub-categories of LVCs:
   • The verb v is "light" in that it contributes to the meaning of the whole only by bearing morphological features: person, number, tense, mood, as well as morphological aspect. This implies that v's syntactic subject is n's semantic argument. In this case, we annotate the construction as LVC.full.
     • давам изявление give a statement to make a statement
       нанасям щети spread damages to cause damages
     • παίρνω μία απόφαση, κάνω βόλτα , έχω αγωνία, έχω πονοκέφαλο → noun refers to a state
     • to make a presentation
       to pay a visit
       to have rights
       to have a headache
       to carry out a destruction
     • dar un paseo give a walk to go for a walk
       tener valor to have courage
       tener dolor de cabeza have pain of head to have a headache
     • faire une présentation to make a presentation
       faire une visite to make a visit
       avoir le droit to have the right
       avoir un mal de tête to have a headache
     • napraviti pogrešku to make a mistake
     • fare una presentazione to make a presentation
       fare una visita to make a visit
       avere il diritto to have the right
       avere un mal di testa to have a headache
     • odnieść sukces carry-away success to be successful
       mieć rację to have rightto be right
       cierpieć na anemię to suffer from anemia
     • realizar uma apresentação to make a presentation
       fazer uma visita to make a visit
       ter um direito to have a right
       ter dor de cabeça have pain of head to have a headache
     • a face o prezentareto make a presentation
       a face o vizită to pay a visit
     • imeti predavanje to have a lecture to give a lecture, biti mnenja to be of opinion to have an opinion, biti v pomoč to be in help to be helpful, delati razlike to make differences to differentiate
   • The verb v is "causative" in that it indicates that the subject of v is the cause or source of the event or state expressed by n. In other words, the noun has semantic arguments expressed as non-subject elements in the sentence, and the subject of the verb brings an additional information, indicating the cause of source of the event/state. In this case, we annotate the construction as LVC.cause. These constructions are expected to be less idiomatic than other VMWEs and can be understood as complex predicates with a causal support verb.
     • давам възможност to give an opportunity
       нося късмет to bring luck
     • κάνω αιδικίαmake injustice
       δίνω ικανοποίησηgive satisfaction
       προκαλώ καταστροφήcause distruction
     • to grant rights
       to give a headache
       to provoke a reaction
     • dar derecho to grant the right
       dar vértigo give vértigo to make dizzy
       causar un accidente to provoke an accident
     • donner le droit to grant the right
       donner le vertige give the vertigo to make dizzy
       provoquer un accident to provoke an accident
     • dati mogućnost to give an opportunity
     • dare il diritto to grant the right
       dare le vertigini to_give the vertigo to make dizzy
       causare un incidente to provoke an accident
     • to sprawia nam kłopot this causes us trouble
       nakłada obowiązek na użytkowników put a duty on the users
       dać prawo to give the rightto grant the right
       narazić na straty expose to losses
       stawiać komuś celto put an aim to someone to set a goal to someone
     • dar o direito to grant the right
       dar tontura give vertigo to make dizzy
       provocar um acidente to provoke an accident
     • a da dureri de cap to give pains of head to give a headache
     • dati ime nekomu to give (somebody) a name to name (somebody), narediti konec nečemu to make an end (to something) to end (something)

The following decision tree should be applied to decide whether a candidate should be annotated as a LVC.full, LVC.cause or none.

LVC-specific decision tree:

• Apply test LVC.0 - [N-ABS: Is the noun abstract?]
  • It is not an LVC, exit
  • Apply test LVC.1 - [N-PRED: Is the noun predicative?]
    • It is not an LVC, exit
    • Apply test LVC.2 - [V-SUBJ-N-ARG: Is the subject of the verb a semantic argument of the noun?]
      • Apply test LVC.3 - [V-LIGHT: The verb only adds meaning expressed as morphological features?]
        • It is not an LVC, exit
        • Apply test LVC.4 - [V-REDUC: Can a verbless NP-reduction refer to the same event/state?]
          • It is not an LVC, exit
          • It is an LVC.full
      • Apply test LVC.5 - [V-SUBJ-N-CAUSE: Is the subject of the verb the cause of the noun?]
        • It is not an LVC, exit
        • It is an LVC.cause

Note: test 10 [N-SEM] from the previous version of the guidelines (1.0) was considered unnecessary and has been abandoned in the current version of the guidelines.

Note: LVC tests are often hard to apply. If you hesitate at some intermediary test, continue to the next one, since the last tests of LVC.full and LVC.cause will help you reach your final decision.

Test LVC.0 - [N-ABS] Noun is abstract

Is the noun n abstract?

• continue to next test
  • проблем problem, възможност opportunity, изявление statement, план plan
  • προτεραιότητα, θυμός,αγάπη,δυσκολία, λόγος,παρουσίαση,γέννηση
  • priority, anger, love, opinion, difficulty, speech, presentation, birth
  • paseo walk, derecho right, ilusión excitement, fe faith, duelo grief
  • pas step, édition edition, discours speech, explication explanation, lute fight
  • problem problem, mogućnost opportunity, ideja idea
  • priorità priority, rabbia anger, amore love, opinione opinion, difficultà difficulty, discorso discourse, presentazione presentation,
  • kłopot problem, wysokość height, praca work, prawo right, zysk profit
  • prioridade priority, festa party, fé faith, nascimento birth, distinção distinction, problema problem, gol goal (soccer)
  • răspuns answer, prezentare presentation
  • dvom doubt, mnenje opinion, ime name, vloga role, odločitev decision
• it is not an LVC
  • правя торта to make a cake → a cake is a physical entity (not abstract)
    давам пари to give money → money is a physical entity (not abstract)
    подавам ръка to give out handto help in a difficult situation → hand is a physical entity (not abstract)
  • καρέκλα chair , τραπέζι table , χέρι hand , άνθρωπος human
  • chair, keyboard, hand, person
  • mesa table, silla chair, mano hand, foto picture,
  • aulki, teklatu, esku, pertsona
  • chaise chair, clavier keyboard, main hand, personne person
  • stol table, ruka hand, kruna crown
  • sedia chair, tastiera keyboard, mano hand, persona person
  • złożyć kartkę to fold a sheet→ a sheet is a physical entity (not abstract)
    złożyć broń to lay down arms→ arms is a physical entity (not abstract)
    bić pianę to beat foamto exaggerate about a problem→ foam is a physical entity (not abstract)
    wystawić fakturę to issue a bill→ a bill is a physical entity (not abstract)
    mieć brata to have a brother→ a brother is a physical entity (not abstract)
  • cadeira chair, teclado keyboard, mão hand, pessoa person, pedra rock
  • scaun chair, pian piano
  • oseba person, mačka cat, kapa hat, avtomobil car, roka hand

Some concrete nouns may be predicative (test LVC.1). For instance, a relational noun such as daughter is semantically incomplete without its argument: daughter of X, so daughter is predicative. However, concrete predicative nouns should not pass test LVC.0.

Some nouns may have both concrete and abstract interpretations. For instance, money is concrete when it refers to banknotes (paper money, bills): I didn't have money so I paid by credit card. However, money is abstract when referring to a conventional value used in transactions between people: He spent a lot of money in the mall. If one cannot be sure that the noun is used in its concrete interpretation, test LVC.0 passes.

Test LVC.1 (prev. 9) - [N-PRED] Noun is predicative

Does the noun n have at least one semantic argument, implying that it is a predicative noun?

• continue to next test
  • поставям акцент to emphasize → event, with two arguments: the agent and the object being emphasized
    имам право → property, with one semantic argument: the possessor of the property
  • einen Besuch abstatten to pay a visit → event, with two arguments: the visitor and the visitee
    Angst haben to have fear → property with one semantic argument: the entity having fear
    einen Blick auf etwas werfen a glance at sth. throw to take a glance at sth → an event with two arguments the entity glancing and the entity glanced at
  • κάνω μία επίσκεψη to-make a visit pay a visit, visit → event, with two arguments: the visitor and the visitee
    έχω τη δυνατότητα to-have the ability to be able → property, with one core semantic argument: the entity having the ability
    έχω μίσος → state, with two arguments: the entity being in state hate and the entity hated
    βγάζω λόγο → event, with one obligatory argument: the entity making the speech
  • pay a visit → event, with two arguments: the visitor and the visitee
    have strength → property, with one semantic argument: the entity having strength
    take a glance at something → event, with two arguments: the entity glancing and the entity glanced at
    make a contribution → event, with two arguments: the contributor and the beneficiary (notice that contribution could refer to both the event and the thing being contributed, but we always prefer the former reading when possible)
  • hacer una visita make a visit to pay a visit → event, with two arguments: the visitor and the visitee
    tener valor to have courage → property, with one semantic argument: the entity having courage
    echar un vistazo a algo give a glance to something to take a quick look at something → event, with two arguments: the entity glancing and the entity glanced at
  • bisita egin visit do to pay a visit → event with two arguments: the visitor and the visitee
    itxaropena ukan hope have to hope, to have hope → event with one single argument: the person who hopes
  • avoir du courage to have courage→ state(property), with one argument: the entity having courage
  • imati osjećaj to have a feeling → property with one semantic argument: the entity having feeling
    otići u posjet to go to a visit to someone to pay a visit → event, with two arguments: the visitor and the visitee
    
  • fare una visita → event, with two arguments: the visitor and the visitee
    avere forza → property, with one semantic argument: the entity having strength
    dare uno sguardo a qualcosa → event, with two arguments: the entity glancing and the entity glanced at
  • złożyć wizytę to submit a visitto pay a visit→ event, with two arguments: the visitor and the visitee
    złożyć skargę to submit a complaintto make a complaint → event, with two arguments: the complaining person and the one he/she complains about
    mieć prawo to have the right→ state, with two arguments: the person having the right and the thing (s)he has the right to
    budzić zastrzeżenia to wake-up reservationsto provoke reservations→ state, with two arguments: the person having reservations and the object of the reservations
  • ter fome to have hunger to be hungry → property, with one argument: the entity that is hungry
    ter idade para fazer algo to have age (to do something) to be old enough (to do something) → state, with one argument: the entity that is old enough
    In PT, we consider that the following classes of predicative nouns pass the test: diseases (gripe, trombose, infarto), physical sensations (fome, sede, sono), emotions (medo, paixão, nojo), cognitive entities internal to the cognizer (ideia, opinião, preocupação), characteristics (coragem, teimosia, fraqueza), relations (contato, conflito, amizade) and nouns expressing communication or speech acts (conversa, discussão, briga, conselho).
  • a face o vizită to make a visit to pay a visit → event, with one argument: the entity that visits
    a avea curaj to have courage → property, with one semantic argument: the entity having courage
  • imeti predavanje to give a lecture → event, with two arguments: a lecturer and the people who are attending the lecture
• it is not an LVC
  • Иван хвърли боклука Ivan threw out the garbage → physical entity (not event/state)
  • Joe macht einen Kuchen→physical entity (not event/state), even though Joe could be considered a semantic argument
  • ο Γιάννης βγάζει τα ρούχα του → physical entity (not event/state)
  • Joe makes a cake → the noun is a physical entity that does not pass test LVC.0, even though Joe could be considered its semantic argument
    Joe experienced a tornado → the noun is an event, but has no semantic arguments
    Joe has a lot of money → the noun is abstract and Joe could be considered its semantic argument, but we consider that money (as well as other goods such as car and bananas) can exist independently of a possessor, so the possessor (owner) should not be considered as semantic argument of money
  • Ana tiene una bicicleta Anna has a bycicle → noun is not abstract, so it does not pass test LVC.0
    Ana hace una foto Ana takes a picture → noun is not abstract, so it does not pass test LVC.0
  • pastela egin cake make to make a cake> → physical entity (not event/state)
  • Anna a un vélo Anna has a bycicle → noun is not abstract, so it does not pass test LVC.0
    Anna affronte la tempête Anna faces the storm → noun is abstract but has no arguments
  • Ivan ima olovku Ivan has a pencil → noun is not abstract, so it does not pass test LVC.0
  • Joe fa un dolce → physical entity (not event/state), even though Joe could be considered its semantic argument
    Joe ha vissuto un tornado → event, but has no semantic argument
  • przetrwać burzę to survive a storm → burza storm has no semantic erguments although it is abstract
  • quebrar a cabeça to break one's head to rack one's brain → physical entity, does not pass test LVC.0
    In PT, we consider that the following classes of abstract nouns do not pass this test: informational content that do not require agents (informações, notícias), natural phenomena (chuva, neve, tornado).
  • Joe a făcut o prăjiturăJoe made a cake → physical entity (not event/state), even though Joe could be considered its semantic argument
  • Janez ima avto → the person that has a car could be considered as a semantic argument, but the car is not an event or a state

We only retain nouns n that have at least one semantic argument, which we define as a semantically mandatory and specific participant of the event or state expressed by the predicative noun.

Sometimes, it might be useful to consider verbs and adjectives derivationally related to the noun to reason about its semantic arguments.

Test LVC.2 (prev. 13) - [N-SUBJ-N-ARG] Verb's subject is noun's semantic argument

Is the subject of the verb a semantic argument of the noun? In other words, is the verb linking the predicative noun to one of its semantic arguments that occurs as the subject of the verb?

• continue to next test
• Иван изнесе доклад Ivan presented a report → Иван is the subject of the verb and a semantic argument (agent) of the activity
  Президентът получи покана за посещение в Германия The president received an invitation to visit Germany → Президентът president is the subject of the verb and a semantic argument (the receiver) of the invitation
  Президентът получи награда Тhe president received an award→ Президентътpresident is the subject of the verb and a semantic argument (the receiver) of наградаaward
• ο Γιάννης έκανε μία παρουσίαση στο αφεντικό του John made a presentation to his boss→ ο Γιάννης John is the subject of the verb and a semantic argument (the presenter) of the noun
• John made a presentation to his boss → John is the subject of the verb and a semantic argument (the presenter) of the noun
• María dio un paseo María went for a walk → María is the subject of the verb and a semantic argument (the walker) of the noun
• Max fait une promenade Max takes a walk → Max is the subject of the verb and a semantic argument (the walker) of the noun
• Helena je otišla u posjet prijateljici Helena payed a visit to a friend → Helena is the subject of the verb and a semantic argument (the visitor) of the visit
  Susjed jedobio dozvolu za gradnju Neighbour received a permission for construction → Neighbour is the subject of the verb and a semantic argument (the receiver) of the permission
• Jan złożył wizytę Marii Jan payed a visit to Maria → Jan is the subject of the verb and a semantic argument (the visitor) of the visit
  Piotr dostał pozwolenie and budowę Piotr received a permission for construction → Piotr is the subject of the verb and a semantic argument (the receiver) of the permission
  Beata ma marzenia o spokoju Beata has dreams about peace → Beata is the subject of the verb and a semantic argument (the possessor) of the dreams
  wyborcy ponoszą za to winę the electorate bears the responsibility for this→ wyborcy electorate is the subject of the verb and a semantic argument (the agent) of the guilt
  ustawa budzić zastrzeżenia the law wakes-up reservationsthe law raises reservations→ ustawalaw is the subject of the verb and a semantic argument (the theme) of zatrzeżeniareservations
• Felipe tomou dois banhos Felipe took two showers → Felipe is the subject of the verb and a semantic argument (the person taking a shower) of the noun
• Ion i-a făcut o prezentare șefului său Ion made a presentation to his boss→ Ion is the subject of the verb and a semantic argument (the presenter) of the noun
• In Janezovo predavanje o slovenski kulturi za študente prevajalstva, the 3 syntactic arguments are expressed as a modifier with a possessive marker (Janezovo Janez's) and prepositional phrases (o slovenski kulturi on Slovene culture and za študente prevajalstva for students of translating )
• Go to test LVC.5
• Приятелят на Мария прекъсна нейния доклад Maria's friend interrupted her report→ Maria's friend, that is, the subject of the verb, is not a semantic argument of the report, since a report does not necessarily have an interrupter
• το αφεντικό του Γιάννη διέκοψε την παρουσίασή του John's boss interrupted his presentation → το αφεντικό του Γιάννη John's boss, that is, the subject of the verb διέκοψε, is not a semantic argument of the noun predicate παρουσίαση presentation, since a presentation does not necessarily have an interrupter
• John's boss interrupted his presentation → John's boss, that is, the subject of the verb, is not a semantic argument of the presentation, since a presentation does not necessarily have an interrupter
  The report provides information about the economy → information only has one argument, which is its topic. The provider/source of an information is not one of its semantic arguments.
• El periodista interrumpió el discurso The journalist interrupted the speech → The journalist, that is, the subject of the verb, is not a semantic argument of the speech, since a speech does not necessarily have an interrupter
  El informe facilita información clave the report provides crucial information → information only has one argument, which is its topic. The provider/source of an information is not one of its semantic arguments.
• Le journaliste a interrompu le discours The journalist has interrupted the speech → The journalist, that is, the subject of the verb, is not a semantic argument of the speech, since a speech does not necessarily have an interrupter
  Le rapport fournit des informations cruciales the report provides crucial information → information only has one argument, which is its topic. The provider/source of an information is not one of its semantic arguments.
• Učenici su prekinuli le predavanjeStudents have interrupted the lecture → Students, that is, the subject of the verb, is not a semantic argument of the speech, since a speech does not necessarily have an interrupter
• Marek dał mi prawo wyboru Marek gave me the right to choose→ Marek is the subject of the verb and but not a semantic argument of the right (a right usually does not need to be grated)
  Incydent ten podważył zaufanie wyborców do kandydata This fact undermined the electorate's confidence in the candidate→ Incydent event is the subject of the verb and but not a semantic argument of the confidence
  komisja przeprowadziła wybory the committee carried out the vote→ komisja committee is the subject of the verb but not a semantic argument of wybory vote, which only requires the voters and the matter of the vote
• O jornalista interrompeu a inauguração The journalist has interrupted the inauguration → The journalist, that is, the subject of the verb, is not a semantic argument of an inauguration, since an inauguration does not necessarily have an interrupter
  O relatório traz informações polêmicas the report provides polemic information → information only has one argument, which is its topic. The provider/source of an information is not one of its semantic arguments.
• To define a predavanje lecture one needs to mention three participants: the presenter, the audience and the topic of the presentation. In other words, the existence of a lecture implies the existence of its arguments.

It is not always easy to determine if the verb's subject is an argument of the noun. You can use the former syntactic version of this test to verify your intuitions.

Test LVC.3 (prev. 11) - [V-LIGHT] Verb with light semantics

Is v semantically light, that is, is the semantics that v adds to n restricted to: (i) what stems from its morphological features (e.g. future, plural, perfective aspect, etc.), (ii) pointing at the semantic role of n played by v's subject?

• continue to next test
• вземам решение make a decision → вземам adds no meaning to решение decision besides that of performing an act
  държа реч to make a speech → държа adds no meaning to реч besides that of performing an act
  поемам отговорност to take responsibility → поемам adds no meaning to отговорност besides that of having a property
• eine Entscheidung treffen a decision meet to make a decision → treffen adds no meaning to Entscheidung besides that of performing an activity
  Angst haben to have fear → haben adds no meaning to Angst besides that of having a property.
• κάνω μία βόλτα take a walk→ κάνωmake adds no meaning to βόλτα walkbesides that of performing an activity
  παίρνω μία απόφαση → παίρνω take adds no meaning to απόφαση decision besides that of performing an activity
  έχω άγχος have anxiety → έχω have adds no meaning to άγχος anxiety besides that of having a property
  διενεργώ έλεγχο perform a check → διενεργώ perform is a pure syntactic operator: in any context, it only bears tense and mood and never adds any sense to the noun
  διαπράττω ένα έγκλημα → διαπράττω commit is a pure syntactic operator: in any context,it only bears tense and mood and never adds any sense to the noun
  
• take a walk → take adds no meaning to walk besides that of performing an activity
  make a decision → make adds no meaning to decision besides that of performing an activity
  have fear → have adds no meaning to fear besides that of having a property
  perform a check → perform is a pure syntactic operator: in any context, it only bears tense and mood and never adds any sense to the noun
  commit a crime → commit is a pure syntactic operator: in any context,it only bears tense and mood and never adds any sense to the noun
  pay a visit → the verb in its usual sense means 'to spend some money on a visit', but here it is not used in this sense and does not add any semantics to the "visiting" event
  deliver a speech → the verb in its usual sense means 'to move from one place to another', but here it is not used in this sense and does not add any semantics to the "speech" event
  undergo a surgery → undergo adds no meaning to surgery besides indicating that the subject is the patient of the surgery
• dar un paseo to take a walk → dar adds no meaning to paseo besides that of performing an activity
  tomar una decisión to make a decision→ tomar adds no meaning to decisión besides that of performing an activity
  tener miedo to have fear → tener adds no meaning to miedo besides that of having a property
• usain egin smell do to smell, to sniff → the verb egin adds no meaning to the noun usain besides that of performing an activity
  lo egin sleep do to sleep → the verb egin adds no meaning to the noun lo besides that of performing an activity
• ils ont du courage they have some courage → have adds no meaning to courage besides that of having a property
  ils reçoivent l’ordre de partir they receive the order of leavingthey are ordered to leave → receive adds no meaning to order besides indicating that the subject is the recepient of the order
  il a subi une intervention chirurgicale he has undergone an intervention surgery he underwent surgery → undergo adds no meaning to surgery besides indicating that the subject is the patient of the surgery
• imati hrabrost to have courage → imati have adds no meaning to hrabrost courage besides that of having a property
  donijeti odluku to make a decision → donijeti in its usual sense means 'to bring', but here it is not used in this sense and does not add any semantics to event
• fareuna passeggiata → fare adds no meaning to passeggiata besides that of performing an activity
  prendere una decisione → prendere adds no meaning to decisione besides that of performing an activity
  avere paura → avere adds no meaning to paura besides that of having a property
  eseguire un controllo → eseguire is a pure syntactic operator: in any context, it only bears tense and mood and never adds any sense to the noun
  commettere un crimine → commettere is a pure syntactic operator: in any context,it only bears tense and mood and never adds any sense to the noun
  fare una visita → the verb in its usual sense means 'make', but here it is not used in this sense and does not add any semantics to the "visiting" event
  fare un discorso → the verb in its usual sense means 'to make', but here it is not used in this sense and does not add any semantics to the "speech" event
• oddać hołd to give-back tributeto pay tribute → oddać give-back adds no meaning to hołdtribute besides that of performing an activity
  wystąpić z wnioskiem to stand out with a proposal to put forward a motion → wystąpić z stand out with adds no meaning to wniosekmotion besides that of performing an activity
• mover uma ação judicial to move a lawsuit to sue → to move adds no meaning to lawsuit besides that of performing an activity
  apresentar uma lesão present a lesion to have a lesion → to present adds no meaning to lesion besides that of having a property
  estar com medo be with fear to be afraid → to be with adds no meaning to fear besides that of being in a state
• a avea curaj to have courage → avea adds no meaning to curaj besides that of thaving a property
  a lua o decizieto make a decision → lua adds no meaning to decizie besides that of performing an activity
• Janez ima predavanje Janez lectures → Janez is the subject of the verb and a semantic argument of the noun (the lecturer)
• it is not an LVC
• започвам играта start the game, start playing → започвам start adds an aspectual meaning to the noun
• eine Rede beginnen to begin a speech → beginnen adds an aspectual meaning to the noun Rede
• ξεκινάω μία προσπάθειαstart an attempt → ξεκινάω start adds an aspectual meaning to the noun
• to start a walk → start adds an aspectual meaning to the noun
• comenzar un discurso to begin a speech → comenzar adds an aspectual meaning to the noun discurso
• oinez hasi foot-by start to start walking → the verb hasi adds an aspectual meaning to the noun
• donner du courage to give courage → donner indicates the source of the courage (this would not pass test LVC.2)
  donner son avis to give one's opinion→ donner adds the information that the opinion is communicated
  Ce fait attire l'attention de la justice This fact attracts the attention of the justice → attirer indicates the attention starts
• početi igru start the game → početi start adds an aspectual meaning to the noun
• cominciare un ballo to start a dance → cominciare adds an aspectual meaning to the noun ballo
• wymierzyć sprawiedliwośćto measure justiceto do justice→ wymierzyćmeasure adds an aspectual meaning to sprawiedliwośćjustice
  przejść na emeryturęto cross to retirementto take retirement→ przejść adds an inchoative (change-of-state) meaning to the noun
  propozycja budzi zastrzeżeniathe proposal wakes-up reservationsthe proposal raises reservations→ budzi wakes-up raises add an inchoative meaning to zastrzeżenia reservations
  dopełnić obowiązkuto fulfill one's duty→ dopełnićfulfill adds a fulfillment meaning to obowiązekduty
• entrar com uma ação judicial to enter with a lawsuit to file a lawsuit → to enter adds an aspectual meaning to the noun
  dar uma opinião to give an opinion → to giveadds the meaning of communication which is not present in the name itself (one can ter uma opinião to have an opinion without ccommunicating it).
• a începe muncato start work the to start working → începe adds an aspectual meaning to the noun
• Študent je prekinil njegovo predavanje The student has interrupted his lecture → The student, that is, the subject of the verb, is not a semantic argument of the lecture, since a lecture does not necessarily have an interrupter

Note that this light semantics of the verb is either usual for that verb (i.e. the verb is a pure syntactic operator, like commit, perform), or occurs in the context of the particular noun (e.g. for pay in to pay a visit). Both types of verbs pass the test.

In our view of LVCs, we do not require a light verb to be "bleached", as it is sometimes described in the literature. We simply do not take into account the relation between the verb's use as a light verb and its other uses. While the specific meaning added by light verbs to the predicative nouns have been extensively studied and described (e.g. by Miriam Butt and Tafseer Ahmed), we do not adopt any fine-grained classification here. If you have a doubt about a verb's "lightness", proceed to the next test: if you can evoke the same event/state without using the verb, then it is considered light.

Test LVC.4 (prev. 12) - [V-REDUC] - Verb reduction

Try to build an NP without the verb, in which v's subject s becomes n's dependent. You might need to test several prepositions (of, by, for, from), possessives (my, her, somebody's), postpositions, case markers, as long as you use no verb. Can this verbless NP refer to the same event or state as the candidate v+n construction does?

• annotate as LVC.full
  • Иван пое отговорност Ivan took responsibility → отговорността на Иван — both refer to the same property/event
    Иван взе решение Ivan made a decision → решението на Иван — both refer to the same property/event
  • Paul hat eine Rede gehalten Paul has given a speech → Paul's speech both refer to the same speech event
    Ich habe ihm einen Besuch abgestattet I have paid him a visit → mein Besuchmy visit both refer to the same visiting event
  • ο Γιάννης έκανε μία παρουσίαση John made a presentation → η παρουσίαση του Γιάννη John's presentation — both refer to the same presenting event
  • Paul had a walk → Paul's walk — both refer to the same walking event
    I paid him a visit → my visit to him — both refer to the same visiting event
    Hester gave birth to Pearl → Pearl's birth to Hester — both refer to the same birthing event (note that the key criterion is that Hester, the subject of the verb, is a (prepositional) dependent of birth in the paraphrase)
    The party gave priority to senior members → the priority of senior members for the party — both refer to the same prioritization event
  • Pedro dio un paseo Pedro gave a walk Pedro took a walk → el paseo de Pedro Pedro's walk— both refer to the same walking event
    El capitán da la orden de partir The captain gives the order to leave The general orders to leave → la orden del capitán de partir The general's order to leave
  • Pellok bisita egin zidan → Pelloren bisita -- both refer to the same visiting event
  • Paul a fait une enquête Paul made an inquiry → L'enquête de Paul Paul's inquiry
    Paul procède à une perquisition Paul makes a search→ La perquisition de/par Paul the search of/by Paul
    Le général donne l'ordre de partir The general gives the order to leave The general orders to leave → l'ordre du général de partir The general's order to leave
    Les soldats reçoivent l'ordre de partir The soldiers receive the order to leave The soldiers are ordered to leave→ l'ordre aux soldats de partir The order to the soldiers to leave
    Jean souffre de troubles psychiques John suffers from psychic troubles → Les troubles psychiques de Jean John's psychic troubles
    Jean présente une hypersensibilité John presents a hypersensibility John has a hypersensibility→ l'hypersensibilité de Jean John's hypersensibility
    Paul reçoit des menaces de (la part de) Pierre Paul receives threats from (the part of) Peter Paul is threatened by Peter → les menaces de Pierre à Paul Peter's threats to Paul
    Ce médicament présente un risque This medicine presents a risk This medicine poses a risk → le risque de ce médicamentthis medicine's risk
    Ce fait attire l'attention de la justice This fact attracts the attention of the justice → l'attention de la justice pour/sur ce fait the attention of the justice on/about this fact
  • Istraživač je donio zaključak The researcher made a conclusion → njegov zaključak his conclusion both refer to the same event
  • Paolo ha fatto una conquistaPaul made a conquer→ la conquista di Paolo
    Il generale da l' ordinedi partire. The general gives the order to leaveThe general orders to leave → L'ordine di/da parte del generale di partire
    Paolo riceve delle minacce da (parte di) Piero → le minacce di Piero a Paolo
  • Obecni oddali hołd poległym The present gave-back tribute to the fallen The audience payed tribute to the fallen→ hołd obecnych the tribute of the audience
    Jan miał na myśli Marię Jan had on thought Maria Jan meant Maria→ myśl JanaJan's thought
    Jan otrzymał wymówienieJan received a dismissal→ wymówienie dla Jana dismissal for Jan
    Inwestycja przynosi zyski the investment brings profit→ zyski z inwestycji profit from the investment
  • João cometeu um deslize → o deslize do João — both refer to the same event
    O jogador cobrou um pênalti the player charged a penalty kick the player took a penalty kick → o pênalti do jogador the player's penalty kick — both refer to the same event
    João tem consciência do perigo John has conscience of the danger John is aware of the danger → a consciência do João sobre o perigo John's awareness of the danger — both refer to the same state
    João recebeu a remuneração John received the remuneration → a remuneração do João John's remuneration — both refer to the same event
    O paciente recebeu a visita dos familiares The patient received the visit of the relatives → a visita dos familiares ao paciente the visit of the relatives to the patient — both refer to the same event
    João apresenta lesões John presents lesions → as lesões do João John's lesions — both refer to the same state
  • Paul a făcut o plimbarePaul had a walk → plimbarea lui Paul Paul's walk — both refer to the same walking event
    i-am făcut o vizită I paid him a visit → vizita mea — both refer to the same visiting event
  • imeti dvome to have doubts to doubt → imeti have adds no meaning to dvomi doubts besides that of having a property
    delati razlike to make differences to differentiate → delati in its usual sense means 'to make', but here it is not used in this sense and does not add any semantics to event
• it is not an LVC
  • Иван хвърли поглед на вестника Ivan threw a glance at the newspaper → #погледът на Иван върху вестника — different semantics; and requires a different preposition
  • Paul hat einen guten Eindruck gemachtPaul has made a good impression → #Paul's Eindruck auf seine Freunde Paul's impression on his friends has a different semantics
  • ο Παύλος πήρε νέα από τον αδερφό του Paul got news from his brother → #Τα νέα του Παύλου από τον αδερφό του #Paul's news from his brother — one cannot remove the verb because the sense of communication is missed, so the verb is not light. As a consequence, the verbless NP (Τα νέα του Παύλου) fails to refer to the original event (Paul got news)
  • Paul got news from his brother → #Paul's news from his brother — one cannot remove the verb because the sense of communication is missed, so the verb is not light. As a consequence, the verbless NP (Paul's news) fails to refer to the original event (Paul got news)
  • Juan recibió la noticia de su hermano Juan got the news from his brother → #La noticia de Juan — one cannot remove the verb because the sense of communication is missed, so the verb is not light. As a consequence, the verbless NP (la noticia de Juan) fails to refer to the original event (Juan recibió una noticia)
  • Hizlariak interesa piztu zuen Speaker interest switched-on The speaker awakened interest → #Hizlariaren interesa, #the speaker's interest -- different semantics
  • Son comportement porte une atteinte grave à l'honneur des soldats His behaviour seriously jeopardises the soldiers' honnour → #l'atteinte de son comportement the jeopardy of his behaviour
  • Petar je dobio poruku od direktora Petar received message from his boss → #Petar's news from his boss — one cannot remove the verb because the sense of communication is missed, so the verb is not light. As a consequence, the verbless NP (Petar's message) fails to refer to the original event (Petar received message)
  • Michael Phelps pobił rekord sprzed 2 tysięcy latMichael Phelps broke the record from 2 thousand years ago→ #Michael Phelps' record
    Ulica nosi imię sławnego poety The street carries the forename of a famous poet The street carries the name of a famous poet.→ imię ulicy the forename of the street
    Adam jest tego samego zdania Adam is of the same opinion Adam has the same opinion → #zdanie Adama Adam's opinion refers to the contents of his opinion, not to the fact of having an opinion
  • O jogador cobrou uma falta the player charged a foul the player took a free kick → a falta do jogador the player's foul — the focus changes from taking a free kick to being one of the parts involved in a foul (it's a VID)
    O jogador provocou uma lesão the player provoked a lesion → a lesão do jogador the player's lesion — In the reduced NP, the focus changes from hurting somebody else to getting hurt
    O músico apresenta suas composições the musician presents his compositions → as composições do músico the musician's compositions — the reduced NP does not keep the sense of presenting, it is not refer to the same event as the verbal construction
  • Paul a făcut o impresie bunăPaul made a good impression → #Impresia lui Paul despre soția sa Paul's impression on his wife— different semantics
  • to začeti predavanje to begin a lecture → začeti to begin adds an aspectual meaning to the noun

This test has a simple formulation but its application has some important subtleties which are central to our definition of the LVC.full category. The goal of this test is to keep only constructions in which the predicative noun is an event or state, excluding "gray-zone" predicates.

First, if it is not possible to build an acceptable NP where the verb v's subject s becomes a dependent of the noun n, e.g. using any preposition, postposition and/or case marker, this means that the verb is not light, and the construction cannot be annotated as LVC.full. This may remove constructions in which there is control, that is, both the noun and the verb share the same subject. However, control is not sufficient to characterize an LVC.full. In other words, LVC.4 fails, the verb is not completely light, and you cannot annotate the construction as LVC.full, even if intuitively it resembles an LVC.full due to control:

• Paul a l'air de dormir Paul has the air of to-sleep Paul seems to be sleeping → *l'air de dormir de Paul is unacceptable
  Paul a eu l'occasion de dormir Paul has had the oportunity to sleep Paul had the oportunity to sleep → *l'occasion de Paul de dormir is unacceptable
• Zdravnik je postavil diagnozo The doctor made a diagnosis → njegova diagnoza His diagnosis both refer to the same event
  Politik jedal napoved The politician made a forecast → njegova napoved his forecast both refer to the same event

Second, the fact that the NP is acceptable does not suffice to characterise an LVC.full. Furthermore, the NP version in which the verb was omitted, if acceptable, must evoke the same event or state as the LVC. Here are some tricky examples and some recommendations about how to interpret them:

• Имам по-голям брат I have an elder brother → моят брат my brother refers to one member of the relation, and not to the state of brotherhood between both actants
  отправих покана към приятелите си I sent an invitation to my friends→ покана invitation can be interpreted both as the act of inviting and as its contents; for the first reason we count this candidate as LVC.full
• Mary has a brother → Mary's brother is a concrete NP referring to one member of the relation (does not pass LVC.0), and not to the state of brotherhood between both actants
  Mary sent a letter → Mary's letter refers to a concrete object participating in the event (does not pass LVC.0), but not to the sending event itself
  Mary has an opinion and more generally, cases of have + a noun refering to the state of having a mental content (opinion, belief) → Mary's opinion is ambiguous between the fact that she has an opinion and the content of her opinion. We recommend that these cases should be annotated as LVC.full
  Mary made a speech and more generally, cases of make + a noun refering to a speech act → Mary's speech refers to the informational content produced or communicated during the speech act, but can also refer to the act itself. We recommend that these cases should be annotated as LVC.full
  Mary made a decision → decision can refer to the deciding event (a quick decision) and/or to what is decided. We recommend that these cases should be annotated as LVC.full
• María tiene un hermano María has a brother → el hermano de María María's brother is a concrete NP referring to one member of the relation (does not pass LVC.0), and not to the state of brotherhood between both actants
  María envió una carta María sent a letter → La carta de María María's letter refers to a concrete object participating in the event (does not pass LVC.0), but not to the sending event itself
  María dio un discurso María made a speech and more generally, cases of dar + a noun refering to a speech act → el discurso de María refers to the informational content produced or communicated during the speech act, but can also refer to the act itself. We recommend that these cases should be annotated as LVC.full
  María tomó una decisión María made a decision → decisión decision can refer to the deciding event (a quick decision) and/or to what is decided. We recommend that these cases should be annotated as LVC.full
• la compagnie a pris des mesures d'économie the company took some measures of savingthe company took cost-saving measures → the NP les mesures d'écononmie de la compagnie is ok, the semantic equivalence is difficult to judge, the "measures" seem to refer to cost-saving actions, so ok to annotated as LVC.full
• mam starszego brata I have an elder brother → mój brat my brother refers to one member of the relation, and not to the state of brotherhood between both actants
  Maria wysłała wiadomość Maria sent a message→ wiadomość Marii Maria's message refers to the contants of the message sent by Maria, rather than to the sending event itself
  Maria jest zdania, że Mary has the opinon that... → zdanie Marii Mary's opinion refers to the content of the opinion, and not to the state of having an opinion
  miał na celu awans He had promotion on the aim His aim was a promotion→ jego cel refers to the aim inself, and not to the state of having a aimta partia w wyborach miała większość this party had a majority in the elections→ #większość tej partii the majority of the party provokes a considerable shift in meaning
  złożył zeznania na policji he gave testimony on the police office→ jego zeznania can be interpreted both as the act of testimony and as its contents; for the first reason we count this candidate as LVC.full
• Mojca jedala Tini priložnost Mojca gave Tina an opportunity → #Mojčina priložnost Mojca's opportunity has a different meaning; if the verb is removed, the original meaning is lost, so the verb is not light.

Finally, some nouns, especially nominalisations, are ambiguous between events and their participants. For instance, a costruction may be an event (the construction of the bridge took 2 years) or its result (this bridge is a spectacular construction). In that case, if the verbless NP can refer to the event, then you should prefer this reading over the "participant" interpretation. For example, in John made a construction, you may ask if John's construction refers to the construction event or to its result. In this case, it can refer to the event, so it should be annotated as LVC.full.

Test LVC.5 - [V-SUBJ-N-CAUSE] Verb's subject is noun's cause

Is the subject of the verb expressing the cause of the predicate expressed by the noun? In other words, does the verb bring an additional participant to the scene, representing the source or cause of the event or state referred to by the noun?

• annotate as LVC.cause
• Иван даде възможност на Мария да представи картините си Ivan gave Maria the opportunity to present her paintings→ Ivan is not a semantic argument of възможност opportunity but he is the cause of the opportunity
• to grant rights → X has the right to Y, the granter is not a semantic argument of rights, but it causes somebody to have the right to do someting
  to give a headache → X has a headache, the cause of the headache, indicated as the subject of give is not a semantic argument
  the new law provoked the destruction of the building → the destruction of X by Y, the reason for the destruction is indicated by the verb provoke, which is a prototypical causative verb. Here, the subject is not the agent of destruction, but its cause. Notice that if the sentence was the explosion provoked the destruction of the building, then the construction would be an LVC.full
  residents seek to build consensus on the development of the territory → the semantic argument of consensus is the topic on which everybody agrees, the subject of build consensus expresses an external participant responsible for the consensus to exist.
• otorgar derechos to grant rights → X has the right to Y, the granter is not a semantic argument of rights, but it causes somebody to have the right to do someting
  dar dolor de cabeza → X has a headache, the cause of the headache, indicated as the subject of dar is not a semantic argument
  la nueva ley provocó la destrucción del edificio the new law provoked the destruction of the building → the destruction of X by Y, the reason for the destruction is indicated by the verb provocar to provoke, which is a prototypical causative verb. Here, the subject is not the agent of destrucción destruction, but its cause. Notice that if the sentence was la explosión provocó la destrucción del edificio the explosion provoked the destruction of the building, then the construction would be an LVC.full
• zadati glavobolju to give a headache→ X has a headache, the cause of the headache, indicated as the subject of give is not a semantic argument
• Marek dał mi prawo wyboru Marek gave me the right to choose→ Marek is not a semantic argument of prawo right but he is the cause of the right
  dać podstawy prawne to give legal foundation
  nakładać na kogoś powinność to put a duty on sb.
  narazić kogoś na straty to expose someone to losses
  stawiać komuś cel to set an aim to someone
  ślady krwi wzbudziły podejrzenia policji the traces of blood raised suspicion to the police
• Bombardamentul a provocat moartea multor civili. The bombing provoked the death of many civilians.→ Many civilians (mulți civili) died and their death (moarte) was provoked by the bombing (bombardamentul)
• it is not an LVC
• Този инцидент подрони авторитета на кандидата This incident undermined the authority of the candidate→ Инцидентът incident is neither a semantic argument of the authority nor its cause
• to relieve a headache → the subject of relieve is not what is causing a headache
  to give birth → tricky case, since the subject of give actually is a semantic argument of birth, so it cannot be its cause. This construction must be annotated as VID (it does not pass test VPC.4 either).
  excessive heat provokes fire → even though provoke prototypically expresses a cause, in this case fire is not predicative and should not pass test LVC.1, so the construction cannot be annotated as LVC.cause
• calmar un dolor de cabeza to relieve a headache → the subject of calmar to relieve is not what is causing a headache
  dar a luz to give birth→ tricky case, since the subject of dar to give actually is a semantic argument of a luz, so it cannot be its cause. This construction must be annotated as VID (it does not pass test VPC.4 either).
  un calor excesivo provoca incendios excessive heat provokes fires→ even though provocar prototypically expresses a cause, in this case incendios is not predicative and should not pass test LVC.1, so the construction cannot be annotated as LVC.cause
• Incydent ten podważył zaufanie wyborców do kandydata This fact undermined the electorate's confidence in the candidate→ Incydent event is neither a semantic argument of the confidence nor its cause (it is the opposite of the cause)
  komisja przeprowadziła wybory the committee carried out the vote→ komisja committee is neither a semantic argument of wybory vote not its cause
  mocny zapach uśpił czujność psów the strong scent lulled the vigilance of the dogs → the scent is the opposite of the cause of vigilance
• căldura excesivă provoacă incendii → even though provocaprovoke prototypically expresses a cause, in this case incendiufire is not a predicate and should not pass test LVC.1, so the construction cannot be annotated as LVC.cause
• Marija ima brata Marija has a brother → Marijin brat Marija's brother is a concrete NP referring to one member of the relation (does not pass LVC.0), and not to the state of brotherhood between both actants
  Marija je poslala pismo Marija sent a letter → Marijino pismo Marija's letter refers to a concrete object participating in the event (does not pass LVC.0), but not to the sending event itself
  Marija ima mnenje Marija has an opinion and more generally, cases of imeti to have + a noun refering to the state of having a mental content (mnenje, predstava, dvom opinion, idea, doubt ) → Marijino mnenje Marija's opinion is ambiguous between the fact that she has an opinion and the content of her opinion. We recommend that these cases should be annotated as LVC.full
  Marija je postavila vprašanje/trditev Marija posed a question/statement and more generally, cases of postaviti make + a noun refering to a speech act → Marijino vprašanje Mary's question refers to the informational content produced or communicated during the speech act, but can also refer to the act itself. We recommend that these cases should be annotated as LVC.full

Constructions annotated as LVC.cause involve:

1. verbs that are typically used to express the cause of predicative nouns in general (e.g. cause, provoke), or
2. verbs that are only used to express the cause of particular predicative nouns (e.g. grant in to grant a right).

When the construction involves a typically causative verb (e.g. cause, provoke), it might seem counter-intuitive to annotate it as VMWE because it looks perfectly regular, not presenting any VMWE idiosyncrasy. However, it turned out difficult to distinguish idiosyncratic from regular LVC.cause, so both should be annotated, like for LVC.full. In other words, some LVC.cause constructions are compositional and can be understood as complex predicates with a causal support verb, regardless of their compositionality.

Typically causative verbs (e.g. cause, provoke) can sometimes be light. In this case, according to the LVC decision tree, LVC.full has priority over LVC.cause. For instance, the announcement provoked an unexpected reaction should be annotated as LVC.full and not LVC.cause, although provoke is a typically causative verb. Indeed, reaction has two arguments (reaction of X to Y), one of which is the subject of the verb (test LVC.2 passes). In other words, typically causative verbs may be used in either LVC.full or LVC.cause, depending upon whether the cause subject of the verb is a normal, canonical argument to the predicative noun (LVC.full) or an "external" non-canonical cause (LVC.cause).

Some verbs could be considered causative, but their interpretation goes beyond purely indicating the cause of the event/state. Therefore, you should NOT annotate as LVC.cause constructions involving:

• verbs which encode a manner of causation:
  • to call a meeting entails communication to schedule the meeting
    to hold a meeting entails leadership
    to organize classes entails preparation
• verbs which encode modality:
  • to allow dialogue entails permission
    to foster dialogue entails assistance
    to require dialogue entails necessity
• aspectual verbs whose subject is a semantic argument of the noun:
  • we started the meeting
    we ended the meeting
    we continued the meeting

Problematic cases and remarks

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